Last updated on Marzo 07, 2000
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LARGE WORLD RELIGIONS
The Oldest Record
Confucianism
Buddhism
Judaism
Roman Catholic Church
Ortodox Church
Islam
Protestantism
Hinduism
The Oldest Record
Abraham, originally called Abram, was Israel's first great patriarch. He probably lived in the late 3d or early 2d millennium BC, but the earliest source for information on his life is GENESIS 11-25, written about 10 centuries later. He was born at Ur in Chaldea, where he married his half-sister SARAH. Under divine inspiration, he went to Haran in Mesopotamia.
Later God commanded him to leave his home for a new land; in return God offered Abraham fame, land, and descendants, promising that he would become a blessing to all nations. Abraham obeyed and migrated to Canaan, where he lived as a nomadic chieftain. He soon became wealthy, but he still had no son. Because Sarah was advanced in years, she substituted her Egyptian slave HAGAR, who bore ISHMAEL, Abraham's first son. Later, in accord with a divine promise, Sarah gave birth to ISAAC.
Abraham's faith was put to a severe test when God commanded that he sacrifice Isaac, his only son by Sarah. Abraham did not waver and he prepared for the sacrifice, but God spared the boy at the last moment, substituting a ram. The Bible portrays Abraham as a man struggling to trust God's promises. By his faith Abraham became the father of the Israelite people and is still honored in three different religions.
Jewish tradition stresses MONOTHEISM. Christians see him as a model for the man of faith and recognize him as their spiritual ancestor. Muslims accept him as an ancestor of the Arabs through Ishmael. Numerous works of art are based on the story of the sacrifice of Isaac.
Confucianism
Confucianism, the philosophical system founded on the teaching of Confucius (551-479 BC), dominated Chinese sociopolitical life for most of Chinese history and largely influenced the cultures of Korea, Japan, and Indochina. The Confucian school functioned as a recruiting ground for government positions, which were filled by those scoring highest on examinations in the Confucian classics.
It also blended with popular and imported religions and became the vehicle for articulating Chinese mores to the peasants. The school's doctrines supported political authority using the theory of the mandate of heaven. It sought to help the rulers maintain domestic order, preserve tradition, and maintain a constant standard of living for the taxpaying peasants. It trained its adherents in benevolence, traditional rituals, filial piety, loyalty, respect for superiors and for the aged, and principled flexibility in advising rulers
Confucius' father died shortly after Confucius' birth. His family fell into relative poverty, and Confucius joined a growing class of impoverished descendants of aristocrats who made their careers by acquiring knowledge of feudal ritual and taking positions of influence serving the rulers of the fragmented states of ancient China.
Confucius, 551-479 BC, was the Chinese sage who founded Confucianism. Born of a poor but aristocratic family in the state of Lu (now Shantung province), he was orphaned at an early age. As a young man, he held several minor government posts; in later years, he advanced to become minister of justice in his home state. But he held these positions only intermittently and for short periods because of conflicts with his superiors. Throughout his life, he was best known as a teacher. When he died at the age of 72, he had taught a total of 3,000 disciples who carried on his teaching.
Three doctrines of Confucius are particularly important. The first is benevolence (jen). Confucius considered benevolence as something people cultivate within themselves before it can affect their relations with others. The best way to approach benevolence is in terms of enlightened self-interest, that is, putting the self in the position of the other and then treating the other accordingly.
Two sayings of Confucius best express this idea: "Do not do to others what you would not like yourself"; and "Do unto others what you wish to do unto yourself." Benevolence means the practice of these two sayings. The second doctrine concerns the superior man (chun-tzu). The superior man is one who practices benevolence regardless of family background.
Ritual propriety is the third doctrine. Confucius emphasized right behavior in one's relations; man should act in accordance with propriety. Thus one behaves ritualistically with the other. Such behavior is called li; it refers to social and aesthetic norms that guide people in their social relations.
Confucius devoted himself to learning. At age 30, however, when his short-lived official career floundered, he turned to teaching others. Confucius himself never wrote down his own philosophy, although tradition credits him with editing some of the historical classics that were used as texts in his school. He apparently made an enormous impact on the lives and attitudes of his disciples, however.
The book known as the Analects, which records all the "Confucius said, . . . " aphorisms, was compiled by his students after his death.
Education in li, or social rituals, is based on the natural behavioral propensity to imitate models. Sages, or superior people--those who have mastered the li--are the models of behavior from which the mass of people learn. Ideally, the ruler should himself be such a model and should appoint only those who are models of te (virtue) to positions of prominence. People are naturally inclined to emulate virtuous models; hence a hierarchy of merit results in widespread natural moral education.
The recorded sayings of Confucius do not present a systematic vision. The first figure in the Confucian tradition to move toward a philosophical system was MENCIUS (4th-3d century BC). Mencius argued for the essential goodness of persons--that divergence in moral responsibility is a result of a bad upbringing or environment. The results of a poor moral training can be overcome by education, and society is, thus, essentially perfectible. The duty of government is to foster the well-being of the people and bring society to perfection, a goal with which the genuine ruler is in accord due to his inborn goodness and moral sense.
A strain in Confucianism diametrically opposed to the idealism of Mencius arose a generation later in the thought of Hsun-tzu (330-225 BC). Hsun-tzu argued that, far from good, the inborn nature of persons is evil, or uncivil. Rather than eliciting innate moral virtues through education, Hsun-tzu insists on the need to impose them from without. This doctrine has been variously interpreted; such a position leads to the nonabsoluteness of ethical norms and hence leads as much in the direction of liberalism as authoritarianism. Yet another facet of Hsun-tzu's thought is an acute logical sense, and he left a penetrating essay on names and meaning. Until the advent of Neoconfucianism in the medieval period, Hsun-tzu was usually considered a superior thinker to Mencius.
Laozi (Lao-tzu), or Master Lao, is the name of the supposed author of the Taoist classic Daode Jing (Tao-te Ching). According to Taoist legend, Laozi the founder of TAOISM, was named Li Erh and had the courtesy name Lao Dan (Lao Tan). An older contemporary of Confucius (551-479 BC), he was keeper of the archives at the imperial court. In his 80th year he set out for the western border of China, toward what is now Tibet, saddened and disillusioned that men were unwilling to follow his path to natural goodness. At the border (Hank Pass), however, the guard Yin Xi (Yin Hsi) requested that Laozi record his teachings before he left, whereupon he composed in 5,000 characters the famous Daode Jing Ching (The Way and Its Power). The essential teaching of Laozi is the Dao (Tao), or Way, to ultimate reality--the way of the universe exemplified in nature. The harmony of opposites (T'ai Chai) is achieved through a blend of the yin (feminine force) and the yang (masculine force); this harmony can be cultivated through creative quietude (wu wei), an effortless action whose power (de or te) maintains equanimity and balance.
Laced with richly poetic imagery, it counsels balance, restraint, simplicity, and the avoidance of activity and desire as the means of achieving harmony with the natural currents of the Tao, or universal way. In ancient China, Laozi's thoughts rivaled those of Confucius in popularity;
The concrete meaning of atheism has varied considerably in history: even the earliest Christians were labeled "atheists" because they denied the existence of the Roman deities. In Western culture, where monotheism has been the dominant mode of religious belief, atheism has generally referred to the denial of the existence of a transcendent, perfect, personal creator of the universe. To be an atheist need not mean that one is nonreligious, for there are "high" religions, such as Buddhism and Taoism, that do not postulate the existence of a supernatural being. Atheism should be distinguished from AGNOSTICISM, which means that one does not know whether or not a deity exists.
Confucianism rose to the position of an official orthodoxy during the HAN dynasty (206 BC-AD 220). It absorbed the metaphysical doctrines of Yin (the female principle) and Yang (the male principle) found in the I CHING (Book of Changes) and other speculative metaphysical notions. With the fall of the Han, the dynastic model, Confucianism fell into severe decline. Except for the residual effects of its official status, Confucianism lay philosophically dormant for about 600 years.
With the reestablishment of Chinese dynastic power in the T'ANG dynasty (618-906) and the introduction of the Ch'an (Zen Buddhist) premise that "there is nothing much to Buddhist teaching," Confucianism began to revive. The SUNG dynasty (960-1279) produced Neo-Confucianism--an interpretation of classical Confucian doctrine (principally that of Mencius) that addressed Buddhist and Taoist issues.
After the disastrous conflicts with Western military technology at the dawn of the 20th century, Chinese intellectuals blamed Confucianism for the scientific and political backwardness of China. Chinese Marxism, nonetheless, differs from Western Marxism in ways that reveal the persistence of Confucian attitudes toward politics, metaphysics, and theories of human psychology.
Anti-Confucianism has been a theme in various political campaigns in modern China--most notably during and just after the CULTURAL REVOLUTION. Increased toleration for all religions since Mao Tse-tung's death may lead to a moderate revival of Confucianism, although the interest seems to be mostly in historical issues.
In Taiwan, by contrast, Confucian orthodoxy has survived and serves to underpin an anti-Marxist, traditional authoritarianism. Serious, ongoing Confucian philosophy, however, is found mainly in Hong Kong and among Chinese scholars working in the West.
The Buddhism
Buddhism, one of the major religions of the world, was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, the BUDDHA, who lived in northern India from c.560 to c.480 BC. The time of the Buddha was one of social and religious change, marked by the further advance of Aryan civilization into the Ganges Plain, the development of trade and cities, the breakdown of old tribal structures, and the rise of a whole spectrum of new religious movements that responded to the demands of the times.
These movements were derived from the Brahmanic tradition of HINDUISM but were also reactions against it. Of the new sects, Buddhism was the most successful and eventually spread throughout India and most of Asia
Today it is common to divide Buddhism into two main branches. The Theravada, or "Way of the Elders," is the more conservative of the two; it is dominant in Sri Lanka, Burma, and Thailand. The Mahayana, or "Great Vehicle," is more diverse and liberal; it is found mainly in Taiwan, Korea, and Japan, and among Tibetan peoples, where it is distinguished by its emphasis on the Buddhist TANTRAS. In recent times both branches, as well as TIBETAN BUDDHISM, have gained followers in the West.
It is virtually impossible to tell what the Buddhist population of the world is today; statistics are difficult to obtain because persons might have Buddhist beliefs and engage in Buddhist rites while maintaining folk or other (Shinto, Confucian, Taoist, Hindu) religions. Such persons might or might not call themselves or be counted as Buddhists. Nevertheless, the number of Buddhists worldwide is frequently estimated at more than 300 million.
Just what the original teaching of the Buddha was is a matter of some debate. Nonetheless, it may be said to have centered on certain basic doctrines. The first of the Four Noble Truths, the Buddha held, is suffering (duhkha). By this, he meant not only that human existence is occasionally painful but that all beings--humans, animals, ghosts, hell-beings, even the gods in the heavens--are caught up in samsara, a cycle of rebirth, a maze of suffering in which their actions (KARMA) keep them wandering.
Samsara and karma are not doctrines specific to Buddhism. The Buddha, however, specified that samsara is characterized by three marks: suffering, impermanence, and no-self (anatman). Individuals not only suffer in a constantly changing world, but what appears to be the "self," the "soul," has no independent reality apart from its many separable elements.
The second Noble Truth is that suffering itself has a cause. At the simplest level, this may be said to be desire; but the theory was fully worked out in the complex doctrine of "dependent origination" (pratityasamutpada), which explains the interrelationship of all reality in terms of an unbroken chain of causation.
The third Noble Truth, however, is that this chain can be broken--that suffering can cease. The Buddhists called this end of suffering NIRVANA and conceived of it as a cessation of rebirth, an escape from samsara.
Finally, the fourth Noble Truth is that a way exists through which this cessation can be brought about: the practice of the noble Eightfold Path. This combines ethical and disciplinary practices, training in concentration and meditation, and the development of enlightened wisdom, all thought to be necessary.
For the monks, the notion of offering extends also to the giving of the DHARMA in the form of sermons, to the chanting of scriptures in rituals (which may also be thought of as magically protective and salutary), and to the recitation of sutras for the dead.
All of these acts of offering are intimately involved in the concept of merit-making. By performing them, individuals, through the working of karma, can seek to assure themselves rebirth in one of the heavens or a better station in life, from which they may be able to attain the goal of enlightenment.
Traditionally also, Buddhist monks have been celibate. Thus they depend on the faithful not only for food and financial support but for new recruits. Often children will enter a monastery and spend a number of years as novices, studying, learning, and doing chores. Then, following ordination, they become full members of the community, vowing to uphold its discipline. Henceforth their days will be taken up in ritual, devotions, meditation, study, teaching, and preaching. Twice a month, all the monks in a given monastery will gather for the recitation of the rules of the order (the pratimoksha) and the confession of any violation of those rules.
One of the pivotal concepts behind the rites and festivals of Buddhist laity and monks is that of offering (dana). This includes, for the laity, not just the giving of food and (in special ceremonies at the end of the rainy seasons) of new robes to the monks, but also the offering of flowers, incense, and praise to the image of the Buddha, stupas, bodhi trees, or, especially in Mahayanist countries, to other members of the Buddhist pantheon such as bodhisattvas.
During this century, traditional Buddhist practices have been increasingly challenged by the advances of secularization and Westernization in Asia. In view of this, various modern Buddhist leaders have tended to deemphasize the popular Buddhist practices and expressions of faith and to stress the more rational and empirical aspects of Buddhist thought as well as the practice of meditation. At the same time, they have given to Buddhism a considerable role in the nationalist movements in their own countries and promoted contacts with other Buddhist nations through such ecumenical organizations as the World Fellowship of Buddhists, which now has chapters throughout the world.
In more recent years, however, some of the Buddhist leaders have lost their influence, and some of their nations have lost their Buddhism. Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia have joined China, Mongolia, Tibet, and North Korea as once Buddhistic but now Communist nations. Even as Western ideology (whether in the form of communism or secular capitalism) has advanced into Asia, however, Buddhism has begun to spread in the West. Tibetan, Theravada, and Japanese sects especially have firm toeholds in America and Western Europe, and, in the face of further uncertainties in Asia, a few Buddhist leaders have even come to think that the future of their religion lies there.
Judaism
Judaism, the religion of the JEWS, claims over 14 million adherents throughout the world. It is the oldest living religion in the Western world. Historically, Judaism served as the matrix for Christianity and Islam, the other two great monotheistic religions, which together with Judaism claim half the world's population as adherents.
Judaism was the first religion to teach MONOTHEISM, or belief in one God. This belief is the basis of Judaism and is summed up in the opening words of the Shema, recited daily: "Hear O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is One" (Deut. 6:4). Jews believe that God's providence extends to all people but that God entered into a special COVENANT with the ancient Israelites. They do not believe that they were chosen for any special privileges but rather to bring God's message to humanity by their example. Belief in a coming MESSIAH has been a source of optimism for Jews.
The beliefs of Judaism have never been formulated in an official creed; Judaism stresses conduct rather than doctrinal correctness. Its adherents have a considerable measure of latitude in matters of belief, especially concerning the messianic future and immortality. Judaism is a this-world religion; its objective is a just and peaceful world order on earth. This hope is assured by the belief that God is the Lord of history as well as of nature.
The basic source of Jewish belief is the Hebrew BIBLE (called the "Old Testament" by Christians), especially its first five books, called the TORAH or the Pentateuch. The Torah was traditionally regarded as the primary revelation of God and his law to humanity; it is considered as valid for all time. Its laws were clarified and elaborated in the oral Torah, or the tradition of the elders, and were eventually written down in the MISHNAH and TALMUD. Thus, Judaism did not stop developing after the Bible was completed. The traditional Jewish prayer book is an important result of this process of development, reflecting the basic beliefs of Judaism as well as changes in emphasis in response to changing conditions.
Individual practices still widely observed include the dietary laws (see KOSHER); rules concerning the marital relationship, daily prayer, and study; and the recital of many blessings, especially before and after meals. The SABBATH and festivals are observed both in the home and in the SYNAGOGUE, a unique institution for prayer and instruction that became the model for the church in Christianity and for the mosque in Islam. Traditionally observant Jews wear tefillin, or PHYLACTERIES, on their forehead and left arm during morning prayers, and affix to their doorposts a mezuzah, a little box containing a parchment scroll inscribed with passages of the Torah that emphasize the unity of God, his providence, and the resulting duty of serving him. In accordance with biblical law, men wear a fringed shawl (tallith) during prayer. Covering the head is a widespread custom.
The Jewish religious calendar, of Babylonian origin, consists of 12 lunar months, amounting to about 354 days. Six times in a 19-year cycle a 13th month is added to adjust the calendar to the solar year. The day is reckoned from sunset to sunset.
The Sabbath, from sunset Friday to sunset Saturday, is observed by refraining from work and by attending a synagogue service. Friday evening is marked in the home by the lighting of a lamp or candles by the woman of the household, the recital of the kiddush (a ceremonial blessing affirming the sanctity of the day) over a cup of wine, and the blessing of children by parents. The end of the Sabbath is marked by parallel ceremonies called havdalah. Similar home ceremonies occur on the festivals.
The holidays prescribed in the Torah are the two "days of awe," ROSH HASHANAH (New Year) and YOM KIPPUR (Day of Atonement), and three joyous festivals, PASSOVER, SHAVUOTH (Feast of Weeks), and the Feast of TABERNACLES. Later additions are the festive occasions of CHANUKAH and PURIM, and the fast of the Ninth of Av (Tishah be-Av), commemorating the destruction of the Temple.
On the 8th day after birth, male children are circumcised as a sign of the covenant with Abraham; the boy is named during the ceremony (see CIRCUMCISION).
Girls are named at a synagogue service. At the age of 13, a boy is deemed responsible for performing the commandments (BAR MITZVAH). To mark his new status, the bar mitzvah takes part in the Bible readings during a synagogue service. (The synagogue service is sometimes popularly referred to as the bar mitzvah.) A similar ceremony for girls (bat mitzvah) is a recent innovation. Somewhat older is the confirmation ceremony for both sexes introduced by Reform Judaism; it is usually a class observance on or near Shavuoth.
Many 19th-century scholars held that monotheism gradually emerged out of POLYTHEISM, the evolution being complete only with the great prophets in the 8th century BC and later. Today many are convinced that monotheism was already a reality in the days of MOSES (13th century BC) and that later prophets developed more fully only the ethical and spiritual implications of the belief. All the Israelite tribes agreed on the worship of one God named Yahweh (see GOD); they shared the memory of slavery in Egypt, the deliverance under Moses, and the Mosaic covenant and revelation at Sinai.
Although some practices were borrowed from surrounding peoples (agricultural festivals, civil jurisprudence), the Israelite religion was kept pure of paganism through the strenuous efforts of the prophets. Unparalleled in any other Near Eastern religion are Judaism's prohibition of images, observance of the Sabbath, dietary laws, legislation guaranteeing support of the poor as a matter of right, and protection of slaves and animals against cruelty.
At present, because of political circumstances, rigid Orthodoxy is the only form of Judaism officially recognized in Israel, for example, in solemnizing marriages and in military chaplaincy. But a large part of the population is remote from formal religion, and the modernist versions have difficulty making their message heard.
A great exodus of Jews from the Soviet Union began in the 1970s and reached new heights in the early '90s. In the West, despite loss of members, mixed marriages, and a serious drop in the Jewish birthrate, religious institutions are flourishing. The number of synagogues and synagogue members increased dramatically after World War II. There has been a remarkable resurgence of Orthodoxy after a long period of decline, and modernist groups are placing greater emphasis on tradition and ceremony.
The Roman Catholic Church
The Roman Catholic church, the largest of the Christian churches, although present in all parts of the world, is identified as Roman because of its historical roots in Rome and because of the importance it attaches to the worldwide ministry of the bishop of Rome, the pope . Several EASTERN RITE CHURCHES, whose roots are in regional churches of the Eastern Mediterranean, are in full communion with the Roman Catholic church.
In 1990 there were some 906 million Roman Catholics, approximately 18% of the world's population. The 55 million Roman Catholics in the United States (1991) constitute 22% of that country's population. These statistics are based on baptisms, usually conferred on infants, and do not necessarily imply active participation in the church's life nor full assent to its beliefs.
A growing estrangement between the Catholic church in the West and the Orthodox church of the East in the first millennium led to a break between them in the 11th century, and the two regions diverged in matters of theology, liturgy, and disciplinary practices.
Within Western Christianity beginning with the 16th-century REFORMATION, the Roman Catholic church came to be identified by its differences with the Protestant churches
The central belief is that God entered the world through the Incarnation of his Son, the Christ or Messiah, Jesus of Nazareth. The founding of the church is traced to the life and teachings of Jesus, whose death is followed by resurrection from the dead, after which he sends the Holy Spirit to assist believers.
This triple mission within the Godhead is described doctrinally as the divine Trinity, God one in nature but consisting in three divine persons.
Roman Catholics attach special significance to the rites of BAPTISM and EUCHARIST. Baptism is sacramental entry into Christian life, and the Eucharist is a memorial of Christ's death and resurrection in which he is believed to be sacramentally present.
The Eucharist is celebrated daily in the Roman Catholic church. Catholics also regard as SACRAMENTS the forgiveness of sins in reconciliation with the church (CONFESSION), ordination to ministry (HOLY ORDERS), marriage of Christians, postbaptismal anointing (CONFIRMATION), and the ANOINTING OF THE SICK.
The public worship of the Roman Catholic church is its liturgy, principally the Eucharist, which is also called the MASS. After the recitation of prayers and readings from the Bible, the presiding priest invites the faithful to receive communion, understood as sharing in the sacramental presence of Christ. At the Sunday liturgy the priest preaches a sermon or homily, applying the day's biblical texts to the present lives of believers.
The devotional importance attached to the SAINTS (especially the Virgin Mary) distinguishes Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy from the churches of the Reformation. In the last two centuries the Roman Catholic church has taught as official doctrine that Mary from her conception was kept free of original sin (the IMMACULATE CONCEPTION) and that at the completion of her life was taken up body and soul into heaven (the ASSUMPTION).
The Ortodox Church
Historically, the contemporary Orthodox church stands in direct continuity with the earliest Christian communities founded in regions of the Eastern Mediterranean by the apostles of Jesus. The subsequent destinies of Christianity in those areas were shaped by the transfer (320) of the imperial capital from Rome to Constantinople by Constantine I.
As a consequence, during the first 8 centuries of Christian history most major intellectual, cultural, and social developments in the Christian church also took place in that region; for example, all ecumenical councils of that period met either in Constantinople or in its vicinity. Missionaries, coming from Constantinople, converted the Slavs and other peoples of Eastern Europe to Christianity (Bulgaria, 864; Russia, 988) and translated Scripture and liturgical texts into the vernacular languages used in the various regions. Thus, the liturgy, traditions, and practices of the church of Constantinople were adopted by all and still provide the basic patterns and ethos of contemporary Orthodoxy
One of the three branches of world Christianity and the major Christian church in the Middle East and Eastern Europe, the Orthodox church, also sometimes called the Eastern church, or the Greek Orthodox, or Orthodox Catholic church, claims to have preserved the original and apostolic Christian faith. Figures for its worldwide membership range from 100 to 200 million, depending on the method of accounting.
The churches of Russia (50-90 million) and Romania (21 million) are by far the largest, whereas some of the ancient patriarchates of the Middle East, including Constantinople, are reduced to a few thousand members.
Eastern Christians were willing to accept the pope only as first among patriarchs. This difference in approach explains the various incidents that grew into a serious estrangement. One of the most vehement disputes concerned the filioque clause of the Nicene Creed (see CREED), which the Western church added unilaterally to the original text.
The schism developed gradually. The first major breach came in the 9th century when the pope refused to recognize the election of PHOTIUS as patriarch of Constantinople. Photius in turn challenged the right of the papacy to rule on the matter and denounced the filioque clause as a Western innovation.
The mounting disputes between East and West reached another climax in 1054, when mutual anathemas were exchanged . The sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth CRUSADE (1204) intensified Eastern hostility toward the West. Attempts at reconciliation at the councils of Lyon (1274) and Florence (1438-39) were unsuccessful. When the papacy defined itself as infallible (First VATICAN COUNCIL, 1870), the gulf between East and West grew wider. Only since the Second VATICAN COUNCIL (1962-65) has the movement reversed, bringing serious attempts at mutual understanding.
The veneration of MARY, as Mother of God is central to Orthodox worship, and the intercession of saints is emphasized in the Orthodox liturgical tradition. After an early controversy on the subject ( ICONOCLASM), the images, or ICONS, of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the saints are now seen as visible witnesses to the fact that God has taken human flesh in the person of Jesus.
The LITURGY used by the Orthodox church is known as the Byzantine rite. It has been translated from Greek into many languages, including the Old Church Slavonic used by the Russian Orthodox church. The liturgy is always sung, and communion is distributed to the congregation in both kinds (bread and wine)
The Orthodox church has been generally quite open to the contemporary ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT. One by one, the autocephalous churches have all joined the Protestant-initiated WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES, without modifying their own view on Christian unity, but considering the council as an acceptable forum for dialogue and cooperation with other Christians.
The recent steps taken by the Roman Catholic church and the decrees of the Second Vatican Council were seen by the Orthodox as promising groundwork for the future, and this positive reaction was witnessed by several meetings between Orthodox and Catholic leaders, including participation by Vatican representatives in ceremonies marking the thousandth anniversary of Russian Christianity in 1988.
The Islam
Islam, a major world religion, is customarily defined in non-Islamic sources as the religion of those who follow the Prophet MUHAMMAD. The prophet, who lived in Arabia in the early 7th century, initiated a religious movement that was carried by the ARABS throughout the Middle East. Today, Islam has adherents not only in the Middle East, where it is the dominant religion in all countries (Arab and non-Arab) except Israel, but also in other parts of Asia (India etc), Africa and, to a certain extent, in Europe and in the United States. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims (sometimes spelled Moslems).
The Arabic word al-islam means the act of committing oneself unreservedly to God, and a Muslim is a person who makes this commitment. Widely used translations such as "resignation," "surrender" and "submission" fail to do justice to the positive aspects of the total commitment for which al-islam stands--a commitment in faith, obedience, and trust to the one and only God (ALLAH).
All of these elements are implied in the name of this religion, which is characteristically described in the KORAN (Arabic, Qur'an; the sacred book of Islam) as "the religion of Abraham." In the Koran, ABRAHAM is the patriarch who turned away from idolatry, who "came to his Lord with an undivided heart" (37:84), who responded to God in total obedience when challenged to sacrifice his son (37:102-105), and who served God uncompromisingly.
For Muslims, therefore, the proper name of their religion expresses the Koranic insistence that no one but God is to be worshiped. Hence, many Muslims, while recognizing the significance of the Prophet Muhammad, have objected to the terms Muhammadanism (or Mohammedanism) and Muhammadans (or Mohammedans)--designations used widely in the West until recently--since they detect in them the suggestion of a worship of Muhammad parallel to the worship of Jesus Christ by Christians.
Estimates of the world population of Muslims range from a low of 750 million to a high of 1.2 billion; 950 million is a widely used medium. Notwithstanding the significant variations in these estimates, many observers agree that the world population of Muslims is increasing by approximately 25 million per year. Thus, a 250-million increase is anticipated for the decade 1990-2000. This significant expansion, due primarily but not entirely to the general population growth in Asia and Africa, is gradually reducing the numerical difference between Christians (the largest religious community) and Muslims, whose combined totals make up almost 50 percent of the world's population.
In 1947 upon the libeartion of India as a British colony, the muslims of India went to Pakistan while the induist of Pakistan fled to India. Today India of nearly 1000 million inhabitants has 803m hindues, 110m muslims 24m christians, 20m sikhs and only 7m budhists. Pakistan today with 142m inhabitants has 106m sunies muslims and 28m chiitas muslims, 3m christians and 2.5m hindues.
While many Muslims vehemently oppose the language that the Prophet Muhammad is the "founder" of Islam--an expression which they interpret as an implicit denial of God's initiative and involvement in the history of Islam's origins--none would challenge that Islam dates back to the lifetime (570-632) of the Prophet and the years in which he received the divine revelations recorded in the Koran.
At the same time, however, most of them would stress that it is only in a sense that Islam dates back to the 7th century, since they regard their religion not as a 7th-century innovation, but as the restoration of the original religion of Abraham. They would also stress that Islam is a timeless religion, not just because of the "eternal truth" that it proclaims but also because it is "every person's religion," the natural religion in which every person is born
When applied to Islam, the word religion has a far more comprehensive meaning than it commonly has in the West. Islam encompasses personal faith and piety, the creed and worship of the community of believers, a way of life, a code of ethic